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AFRO-CARIBBEAN RELIGIONS IN AMERICA: IMMIGRANT BELIEFS IN AN IMMIGRANT'S NATION (PT. 2)
The Haitian Revolution was one of the major pushes for Vodou’s entry into the United States and is thus an important historical event to observe in terms of Afro-Caribbean religious immigration. August 14th, 1791 is an important date in Vodou history: on it, Vodou “houngan” (priest) Dutty Boukman presided over a service with strong political overtones, urging the slaves and free blacks of Haiti to revolt[1]. In addition, a possessed woman at the ceremony named the eventual leaders of the Revolution while under the control of the Vodou figure “Ogoun” – an ancient war deity. Word of this event spread quickly among the slaves of Saint-Domingue; the Haitian Revolution began seven days after Boukman’s proclamation.[2] Once organized, the revolt was carried out under the leadership of Toussaint L’Ouverture, Henri Christophe and Jacques Dessalines – the men named by the woman at Dutty’s ceremony. The Revolution was the first large scale slave revolt in the Western Hemisphere to succeed, establishing a black-run state mostly free of European influence – Catholicism included. This allowed for a prospering and spreading of the Vodou faith across the island of Hispaniola, including into the Dominican capital of Santo Domingo (which traded hands multiple times during the course of the Haitian Revolution, eventually returning back to the Spanish crown). Although never officially sanctioned, Vodou became the most adhered-to religious practice in Haiti.[3] It is a probable concept that the black residents of Saint-Domingue may not have risen up against their colonial masters if it had not been for the unifying practice of Vodou.
The Haitian Revolution displaced many former residents into Louisiana and Florida, many of whom carried with them their Afro-Caribbean beliefs. After seeing the effect that the practice had upon the state of Saint-Domingue, American law enforcement hoped to prevent a similar situation with new immigrants by cracking down on the practice of Vodou[4]. Drum ceremonies were banned and large gatherings of black people (free or enslaved) were looked upon with suspicion from whites until the meetings, too, were banned. Many Americans found an intense displeasure with Vodou animal sacrifice, stating that it was a savage practice; however, in Haiti, “animal sacrifice” was conducted as part of a social event in which the food created from the sacrifice would be eaten by the community[5]. This practice continues within American Vodou communities despite public shock and opposition.
Several decades after the Haitian Revolution, French scholar Hypolite Rivail began work under the pseudonym of “Allen Kardec”; his works would eventually become known as “Spiritism”. Spiritism was a system of belief that incorporated many religious practices including adherence to spiritual communication as well as familiar Eastern concepts such as “karma”. These writings would have a major impact on two drastically different groups: well-to-do white Americans and Afro-Caribbean immigrants. Spiritism found itself popular with whites in the mid-nineteenth century due to a general societal interest in exotic, foreign imports; Vodou followers were empowered by Spiritism as it closely followed their own beliefs[6]. Both stressed the importance of spiritual communication, respect for the deceased and the necessity of esoteric spiritual gatherings. The incorporation of Spiritist beliefs eventually led to “Hoodoo” and its offshoot “New Orleans Voodoo” which combined the beliefs of Vodou with general American folk beliefs and Spiritism. Santeria, too, was impacted by Spiritism in the Caribbean.
Despite its similarity to Vodou, the rise of Spiritism would not prevent former Haitians from facing major difficulties as a result of their beliefs. American authorities continued to prevent a prospering of Vodou, which it viewed as rebellious and primitive. The United States Marines entered Haiti in 1915 due to general instability, taking control of the nation’s major cities and putting a major damper on the practice of Vodou there. Working as civil aid in conjunction with the United States, the Catholic Church conducted “antisuperstition campaigns”, destroyed places of worship and Vodou relics in an effort to do away with the syncretic belief[7]. This sent a notable message to the Haitian followers of Vodou in the United States, who were forced to practice their beliefs in secrecy in order to avoid persecution[8]. The many Haitians who left their island nation for the United States in mid-80’s due to unrest were seen and referred to by Americans as economically collapsed, AIDS-carrying magic-believers due to previous stereotyped views of Haitian immigrants[9].
Santeria’s development and treatment in the United States is a notably different experience than that of Vodou. The many slaves of the Spanish colony on Cuba were specifically of Yoruba descent, unlike the practitioners of Vodou who came from many locations on Africa’s western coast. The Spanish masters of Cuba believed it to be a monetary decision to simply replace slaves in Cuba as opposed to breed them as was done in the United States; this led to a strong foundation for Santeria, as the African influence was present next to the constant Catholic authority[10]. The Spanish imported slaves in staggering numbers due to the extremely profitable business of sugar cultivation and production based around the capital of Havana, allowing for many slaves of similar backgrounds to interact. Social clubs sanctioned by the Catholic Church were organized by African slaves and referred to as “cabildos” – this allowed for the prospering of a syncretic faith, in this case Santeria[11]. At this time in Santeria’s development, Cuba had much more of a white European presence and was not as racially polarized as Haiti. White Cubans were accepted into and adhered to the predominantly-African “La Regla de Ocha”, which was the largest cabildo in Havana[12]. Its members referred to themselves as “Lucumi” – a Yoruba slang term for “friend”[13]. The cabildos began to gain influence and were eventually feared by the Spanish crown as source of insurrection; this proved to be a likely assessment when clashes began in Cuba over independence with the cabildos acting as forums for dissent. The Catholic Church joined the Spanish crown and, eventually, the common people of Cuba were left without much help from their government or their religion. More white Cubans began to turn to Santeria due to their discontentment with Cuban society and Catholic religion[14]. Ongoing displeasure with Cuban politics and religion led to a number of practitioners of Santeria to escape the cities for the mountainous eastern region of Cuba, forming maroon communities which incorporated beliefs from many fleeing slaves on the island.
Becoming suspicious of the majority of slaves on Cuba, Spanish landowners made profits by exporting Santeria-practicing slaves to the United States. Santeria entered the United States in the nineteenth century at places of notable Afro-Cuban slave populations; such locations include as New York, New Orleans and Florida. American plantations required fewer slaves than the massive ongoing projects in the Caribbean, thus disallowing for a large spread of Santeria as had occurred on Cuba[15]. Afro-Cubans immigrated to South Florida in the 1800’s to work in regional factories; public records exist of their “Satanic” ceremonies. In Cuba, music had served as a major aspect of the practice of Santeria; in America, it acted as a signal flare within Caribbean communities that Santeria was present. It was brought to New York City in 1930’s; many popular Cuban musicians based out of New York at that time were practitioners of Santeria, such as Latin jazz figures Mario Bauza, Chano Pozo and Francisco “Machito” Grillo[16]. The 1959 Cuban Revolution initially pleased many Cuban Santeria practitioners by closing down vices such as prostitution and gambling, which led to the Revolution garnering much support from many Santeria communities. The Revolution then took a more liberal move – relationships were established with the anti-religious Soviet Union, and the reduction of church influence through reform in education and land worried many followers of Santeria[17]. This prompted many “Lucumi” – over 400,000 in total - to leave the country, mostly for the American city of Miami.
The mass arrival of Cuban immigrants to America – a new country with different practices and ideals than what they considered traditional – led to the formation of Cuban collectives as means of social survival. As had been experienced with Haitians, a language barrier existed between the immigrants and the already settled Americans; this dissuaded Cubans from joining Catholic congregations in New York and New Jersey, where they were discriminated against on ethnic basis by Irish and Italian congregations[18]. Although a 1910 American ban on African gatherings existed, purportedly out of fear of the insurrectionist tendencies of the Spanish cabildos, Cubans began to turn to Santeria out of survival. Many Cubans turned to Protestant Pentecostal communities due to the familiar practices such as “filling with the Spirit” and speaking in tongues which are comparable to Afro-Caribbean spiritual possession; other immigrants formed communities directly based on their Afro-Caribbean beliefs. Instead of practicing Santeria straightforwardly like followers of Vodou had done, they emphasized the Christian and Spiritist aspects of their religion while leaving less emphasis on African traditions[19]. This did not stop repression from forces of authority as well as popular opinion. In New York, practitioners of Santeria were constantly targeted for raids pertaining to animal abuse and charged with littering for offerings left in public places. Miami politicians criticized Santeria heavily and even went as far as to establish a mostly symbolic “Voodoo Squad” of janitors tasked with cleaning up remnants of Afro-Caribbean ceremonies, including dead animals[20].The earliest modern newspaper articles pertaining to Santeria were in New York Times in 1980, reporting a “Ritual Slaughter Halted in Bronx by a Police Raid” as well as “Police Seize Animals Prepared for Sacrifice by Cult in the Bronx”[21]. – The Florida Humane Society, as well as local churches, described Santeria as barbaric and a boil upon the Floridian community when asked to express an opinion on the subject[22].
Despite the suspicion surrounding it and its followers, Santeria proved to be remarkably adaptive to the United States’ social climate. Santeria began to be “Americanized”, resulting in redefinition of the faith due to impact of Eurocentric ideas and adaption to American statutes and ideals[23]. Over time, the beliefs became less specific with Cuba and the Spanish language became more disused for ceremonies[24]. A traditional practice for those hoping to be ordained into Santeria as a “babalowa” (priest) was that they would have to return to Cuba to do so; this restriction was also lifted and the process could be completed in the national confines of the United States. In addition, the general role of the babalowas was reduced as regular worshipers began to take central roles in ceremonies. Formerly central practices are changing: animal sacrifices were replaced or generally avoided, drumming ceremonies were toned down to not disrupt neighboring communities[25]. Santeria is still changing today, dropping its most archaic beliefs and gaining new ones as followers bring new views to the system and pressures are removed and applied.
The tribulations of Vodou and Santeria practitioners were shockingly unfair in many ways, from their original enslavement and attempts at forcefully converting them to their eventual persecution in the United States for representing the African religious fringe. The story of Afro-Caribbean religions is a very interesting journey – the slaves’ ability to combine their own religions with the beliefs forced upon them unfairly was an ingenious and natural adaptation to the situation. The repression of their beliefs in the United States can only be seen as a shameful practice, sensationalized by the media and politicians in order to gain attention at the cost of the safety and preservation of a peoples’ faith. This practice still continues today - despite Santeria’s respectable growth - as practitioners in the United States are still forced to act outside the public eye to avoid harassment and unjust shame. To reverse this, much effort must be expended in order to educate people on the unique and deeply interesting beliefs of Santeria and Vodou. It should come as natural to America, a nation known for its immigration, to come to know these belief systems, which are immigrant in origin. When this occurs it will be the first step in a long, tenuous path to acceptance for the repeatedly oppressed followers of Vodou and Santeria.
[1] Bob Corbett, the Haitian Revolution of 1791-1803.
[2] Ibid.
[3] Long, 19.
[4] Long, 30.
[5] Long, 32.
[6] Long, 29.
[7] Long, 20.
[8] Long, 30.
[9] Long, 30.
[10] De La Torre, 165.
[11] Long, 24-25.
[12] Long, 25.
[13] Long, 24.
[14] De La Torre, 171.
[15] De La Torre, 166.
[16] Long, 31.
[17] De La Torre, 177.
[18] De La Torre, 177.
[19] De La Torre, 178.
[20] Long, 33.
[21] De La Torre, 209.
[22] De La Torre, 211.
[23] De La Torre, 206.
[24] Ibid.
[25] De La Torre, 223.
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That's all. I sincerely hope my professor enjoys it and doesn't think it goes too crazy on the anthropology bent - the historical aspect of it really is the most interesting part. Ah well. It's just a draft anyway, and I'm sure she'll think it's interesting.
More stuff later.
